On the one hand were old-guard monarchists and aristocrats who saw the National Socialist (‘Nazi’) Party as lowbrow rabble who would lessen the status of the nobility; these royalists understood that nationalism caused citizens to identify with the nation-state and not with the dynasty.
On the other hand were nationalists who didn’t mind the decline of the aristocrats, but who saw that Hitler’s National Socialism would eventually damage the nation. These patriotic nationalists wanted to save the nation from National Socialism.
Also part of this informal network of anti-Hitler agents were pacifists, communists, and representative of other political views. But they were solidly united in their opposition to the Nazi government.
The famous student organization called “The White Rose” is representative of these groups. Many of its members have become famous: Sophie Scholl, Hans Scholl, Alex Schmorell, Christoph Probst, Willi Graf, Kurt Huber, Traute Lafrenz, Katharina Schüddekopf, Lieselotte (“Lilo”) Berndl, Jürgen Wittenstein, and many others.
Within the White Rose group, there was a diversity of spiritual traditions: Hans and Sophie Scholl were Lutherans; Willi Graf and Katharina Schüddekopf were Roman Catholics; Alexander Schmorell embraced the Eastern Orthodox faith of Ukraine and Russia.
One of the unifying influences within the White Rose was Augustine, whose writings offered an intellectual framework both to critique National Socialism and to plan a better postwar society. Another unifying influence was Clemens Galen, known by his hereditary title of Graf Galen (‘Graf’ means ‘Count’), the Bishop of Münster, who boldly preached against Hitler’s plans.
Those who opposed Hitler understood that, more than merely risking their lives, they were undertaking a course of action that not only possibly, but probably, would lead to their arrest, abuse, interrogation, humiliation, and death. As historian Frank McDonough writes, it was ultimately a spiritual undertaking:
Devotion to God was a unifying factor. These young people searched for a spiritual definition of humanity. The writings of the theological scholar St. Augustine made a deep impression upon Sophie and Hans and made them realize that deep philosophical thinking had to take place before real faith could begin. The constant encroachment by the Nazi regime against organized religion was undoubtedly a key motivation in the decision to mount active opposition. They all emphasized Christianity as the basis for moral regeneration in a post-Hitler Germany.
These underground resistance groups carried out a range of activities, from smuggling Jews into safety to industrial sabotage which reduced war supplies, from direct assassination attempts on Hitler to providing intelligence to the English and Americans.
The net impact of these groups can be measured in terms of the number of lives saved and the amount of time by which the war was shortened. Yet a more profound measure of their effect is found in the inspiration which postwar generations drew from their memory.
