Lessons from Buchenwald: Concentration Camp Horrors Outlive the Holocaust

The reader will be familiar with the history of the Holocaust: how Hitler harbored anti-Jewish hatred even before seizing power in 1933; how his National-Socialist party immediately began discriminating against Jews when it took control of the country; how sustained violence against Jews erupted in November 1938; how a system of work camps arose and grew; how the ‘Final Solution’ policy was adopted at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942; and how a system of death camps then arose.

The first Konzentrationslager (‘concentration camps’) were started by the National Socialists in 1933. At first, they housed primarily political prisoners: those who opposed Hitler. Later, after 1938, they housed more and more Jews. The German abbreviation KZ is used to refer to concentration camps, which included both work camps and extermination camps (death camps).

There are many other details in the history of Holocaust. When it was over, millions of Jewish Germans, Jewish Poles, Jewish Czechs, Jewish Austrians, and others, had been murdered.

Specific data about one camp in particular, Buchenwald, give a picture of what happened at the end of the Holocaust. On April 11, 1945, the last Nazi guards and officers abandoned the camp. The inmates took over. (The word ‘Nazi’ is an abbreviation for ‘National Socialist’.)

On April 13, U.S. Army soldiers arrived at the camp, and immediately began giving food and medical help to the inmates.

During May and June, the U.S. Army escorted groups of German civilians from nearby town through the camps. The goals of this action were to ensure that the Germans learned in detail and without ambiguity what had happened, and to create such a large number of eyewitnesses that no serious doubt about the reality of the Holocaust could arise.

In July 1945, the U.S. Army left the region - western Thüringen - which it had liberated from the Nazis. The Soviet Socialist army moved in and occupied the area.

Even though the Americans had freed the Germans of Thüringen from the Nazi oppressors, the four Allied Powers (England, France, the U.S., and the USSR) had previously agreed at the Potsdam Conference that Thüringen would be placed under the control of the Soviet Socialists.

The Soviet Socialists used their secret police and espionage agencies to stop any potential disagreements or complaints from the Germans in Thüringen. The agencies were known as the NKVD and the MVD, among others. (The German abbreviations are NKWD and MWD.)

Life for the ordinary people in the region was difficult: they had been oppressed by the National Socialists, and now they were oppressed by the Soviet Socialists. The Soviet activities regarding the KZ Buchenwald were particularly shocking, as historian Gerhard Finn writes:

Häftlinge („Internierte“) der sowjetischen Geheimpolizei MWD aus den Haftanstalten Erfurt, Weimar, Arnstadt, und Jena werden in das Lager gebracht und beginnen mit Instandsetzungsarbeiten.
Das Lager wird offiziell „Speziallager des MWD Nr. 2“ genannt.

Using prisoners as unpaid forced labor, the Soviet began renovating the concentration camp and restoring it to working order. This happened with other concentration camps in the regions controlled by the Soviets.

Areas controlled by the British, French, and American forces had monuments at the locations of concentration camps. The western Allies wanted to make a public statement against the use of such camps.

The Soviets, however, simply picked up where the Nazis left off, and repaired the camps and started using them again. In a cruel gesture, Gerhard Finn notes about the date December 25, 1945, the first holiday after the war’s end, that

Den Häftlingen wird an diesem Tag die Brotration gestrichen.

The USSR continued to operate the concentration camp Buchenwald, known under the Soviet Socialists as “Special Camp # 2,” until February 1950. Thousands of people were rounded up by the Soviet secret police and imprisoned there. Thousands of them died there.

Although the Holocaust ended in May 1945, and the Nazis were removed from power, the Soviet Socialists were eager to use the concentration camps which the Nazis had left behind. The Soviets repaired whatever had been broken in the camps, and made both life and death miserable for prisoners.

How the English Language Came to Be Named after Germanic Tribes

Two of the many Germanic tribes, more than a thousand years ago, settled in England and largely formed the English language. It was during an era called the Völkerwanderungen, a times of the ‘migration of peoples’.

For many centuries, Germanic tribes, like the Goths and the Franks, had remained settled in Germanic lands. But several reasons suddenly caused them to relocate: the fall of the Roman Empire, which caused chaos and a ‘power vacuum’ in central Europe; the invasions of the Huns; and other reasons.

People from two tribes, the Angles and Saxons, settled on the island of Britain, and so the names of two Germanic tribes became, as historian Jan von Flocken explains, the names by which the English people are now identified:

Schließlich gibt es noch einen weiterwirkenden sprachlichen Überrest in Gestalt der Angeln und Sachsen, zweier Germanenstämme, die im Wesergebiet und in Schleswig siedelten, Mitte des 5. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. auf die Britische Insel auswanderten und dort eine eigenständige Kultur begründeten. Als «Anglo-Saxons» wurden so ausgerechnet Germanen bis heute zum Synonym für Engländer.

People now use the term ‘Anglo-Saxon’ to identify Englishmen, or Englishmen’s descendants in North America, Australia, and other places. This term clearly identifies the English simply as displaced Germans.

Englishmen essentially were Germans, and the English language essentially was the German language, until 1066 A.D., when the invading Normans introduced a version of the French language, which added some new vocabulary to the Germanic core of the language.

Old English texts from around the year 700 A.D. are linguistically indistinguishable from Old German texts of the same era. By the time of Chaucer, in the 1300s, the two languages had diverged significantly.

Today, English is still a language with a Germanic basis, both in terms of its core vocabulary and much of its grammar, with a significant infusion of Franco-Latin vocabulary.

The Germanic Tribes: Better Than Their Reputation

The many different Germanic tribes which spread across Europe 2,000 years ago had their own distinct but related languages and cultures. By around 400 A.D., the Goths were among the first to become a fully literate society. The Goths later split into two tribes, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths.

But many histories do not emphasize the scholarship and education of the Goths, leaving students with the impression that they were instead primitive and rough raiders who marauded through Europe.

There are two obstacles to understanding the Germanic tribes: first, there is, in some cases, a lack of data about some aspects of daily life in these tribes; second, historical judgments are sometimes biased by negative stereotypes. To the latter point, historian Jan von Flocken alludes to the pejorative use of the names of two of the tribes - the Goths and the Vandals:

Von den Germanen haben sich bis heute nur einige charakteristische Bezeichnungen im kollektiven Gedächtnis gehalten. So blieb vom Treiben der Ost- und Westgoten immerhin ein Kunststil namens «Gotik» erhalten, ein Terminus, der Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts geprägt wurde. Und von dem germanischen Volk der Vandalen stammen Begriffe wie «Vandalismus» oder «Vandalentum» als Synonym für rohe, sinnlose Zerstörungen. Nun haben zwar die Vandalen im Jahre 455 n. Chr. Rom geplündert, benahmen sich dabei aber weder grausamer noch gewalttätiger als vor ihnen die Gallier und nach ihnen die Byzantiner oder Spanier. Den Begriff prägte übrigens 1794 ein französischer Bischof, um das Wüten des Pariser Revolutionspöbels zu kennzeichnen.

The Vandals did indeed attack and plunder the city of Rome, but they were no more and no less vicious than the Gauls, the Byzantines, the Muslims, and the Spaniards who also attacked and plundered the city over the centuries.

The Goths developed an advanced literary society, producing in their own language textual commentaries which were the result of close reading. The Gothic language is still the object of serious academic research. The Goths had, however, nothing to do with architectural and literary styles which bear the name ‘Gothic.’

A more accurate assessment of the Germanic tribes reveals not only a literate culture, but one which laid the foundations for Europe’s medieval feudalism, a structure which arguably represented an advance over the Roman absolutism which it replaced.

Why are Germans Called ‘Germans’?

If the Germans refer to themselves as Deutsche, then from where did the word ‘German’ come? Why does the English-speaking world call them by that name?

In the same way, the French refer to them as Allenmands, and the Russians call them Nyemtsi.

Roman government records preserve the first known use of word. A listing of officials, from 222 B.C., carved in stone, uses the Latin form Germani to refer to the Germans.

The word comes from the Celtic language, as historian Jan von Flocken writes, and probably indicates the sylvan nature of the Germanic homelands, i.e., that the German tribes, in the perception of the Gauls, often lived in, near, or around forests:

Der Name «Germani» wird erstmals in den Fasti capitolini, einem römischen Beamtenregister aus dem Jahre 222 v. Chr. erwähnt. Er stammt aus der keltischen Sprache und kann am wahrscheinlichsten als «Bewohner eines Waldlandes» gedeutet werden. So nannten die Gallier ihre Nachbarn rechts des Rheins, weil diese nicht in Städten, sondern in waldumstandenen Einzelgehöften wohnten.

So it was the a Celtic term was adopted by the Romans to refer to the Germanic tribes.

The French word for ‘German’ derives from the name of one particular Germanic tribe, and was generalized to refer to all the tribes. The Russian word derives from a Slavic term for ‘those who can’t speak our language,’ which, from the Russian point of view, the Germans would have been.

The Starting Points of German History: Hermann and the Germanic Tribes

The country of Germany is at the same time very old and very new. Archeologists have evidence of Germanic tribes as early as 1200 B.C., and possibly earlier. So the German nation is well over 3,000 years old.

A ‘nation’ is an ethnic group. A ‘state’ is, however, a sovereign territory with its own government. A ‘nation’ is a group of people who share a common language and culture. A ‘state’ is a country as we usually understand the word ‘country.’

Germany as a sovereign state dates back to 1871, which is relatively new in the history of the world.

So when we speak of German history, the first three millennia or so are the history of the people, not the history of an organized state.

One of the earliest figures in German history is Hermann, who was called Arminius by the Romans, and is sometimes jokingly called ‘Hermann the German’ by history students. In the year 9 A.D., he led a coalition of various Germanic tribes to a military victory over the Roman forces at the Teutoburg Forest, a location in modern Niedersachsen (lower Saxony).

Hermann was apparently a member of a Germanic tribe called the Cherusker (or Cherusci), but his allies in the battle included other tribes.

As historian Jan von Flocken argues, Hermann and the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, despite their popularity, are not the starting points for German history. Although they share a location and language with modern Germans, the Germanic tribes of long ago are not the same as ‘Germans.’ Among the Germanic tribes were also the founders of the Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Gothic, and other nations.

Ancient texts by authors like Tacitus and Strabo give us a data, but not enough data, to definitively characterize the German tribes, as von Flocken writes:

Deutschlands Geschichte mit Hermann dem Cherusker und der Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald einzuleiten, besitzt durchaus Reiz. Es wäre aber genauso unsinnig, wie Italiens Historie mit den Zwillingen Romulus und Remus zu beginnen. Zwischen Germanen und Deutschen sowie Römern und Italienern gibt es ein ungefähres territoriales Bindeglied, eine rudimentäre sprachliche Verwandtschaft, aber mehr nicht. Auch wissen wir wenig Genaues über unsere angeblich so trinkfesten und streitlustigen Vorfahren. Was etwa der römische Historiker Cornelius Tacitus in seiner Germania vor 2000 Jahren niederschrieb, beruhte großenteils auf Hörensagen. Ebenso diffus bleiben Autoren wie der Reiseschriftsteller Strabon, der zu eben jener Zeit notierte, die Germanen würden sich «durch den höheren Grad an Wildheit, Körpergröße und Blondheit» von anderen Völkerstämmen unterscheiden!

One on hand, the history of the Germanic tribes would properly begin a thousand years before Hermann and his battle. On the other hand, a history of Germany as a modern nation-state doesn’t start until 1871.

In the 3,000 years between these two points is complex history of culture: art, music, poetry, architecture, and patterns of daily life. There is also three millennia worth of political and military history, but not of Germany: the area in which the Germans lived didn't become Germany until 1871.

This area was organized into numerous different kingdoms over the centuries. Thus we have the histories of Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, Hesse, Brandenburg, Austria, Prussia, and other in monarchies which were not Germany, but were German.

Compared to the histories of, e.g., England or France, the history of the Germanic kingdoms is in some ways more complex. A name like ‘Wilhelm I’ can refer to Wilhelm I of Württemberg, Wilhelm I of Bavaria, Wilhelm I of Hesse, Wilhelm I of Meissen, etc.

The heroism of Hermann at the Teutoburg Forest will continue to be a popular piece of history, but it is not the starting-point of German history, and it should not be overemphasized.

Need a Job? Demand for German-Speaking Professionals is Strong and Growing

The Boston Globe reported in March 2017 that “online job listings for” professionals who know German “increased by 160 percent between 2010 and 2015.” Strong trade patterns are fueling a demand for workers who are proficient in German.

Both imports and exports with Austria, Switzerland, and other German-speaking countries are large and growing. In fact, the Globe’s 160 percent figure might be on the low side. The statistic included a variety of “bilingual workers,” but notes that the demand for “German skills” is “showing the largest rise.”

The report summarizes a study released by an organization called New American Economy.

The demand for German proficiency is found across various sectors of the economy: management, accounting, marketing, life sciences, engineering, and various research and development functions. The study notes that “pharmaceutical and electronics companies that have a strong presence in Europe drove the demand for German.”

In addition to imports and exports, there are a variety of joint ventures, American firms with office in Switzerland and Austria, as well as German-speaking firms with offices in the United States.

Was Essen die Deutschen?Wo Essen die Deutschen?Wie Essen die Deutschen?

On average, Germans go grocery shopping more often than Americans. On a shopping trip, a typical German might shop at several different stores. While Americans tend to get most or all of their items at a single large supermarket, Germans are more likely to stop at several specialty stores.

Naturally, there are exceptions to these averages on both sides of the Atlantic.

Stops on a shopping trip might include a Bäckerei, for both Brot und Brötchen; a Markt, a large outdoor area where local farmers bring their fruits and vegetables to sell; Metzger or Fleischer, two different words for ‘butcher’; and a Supermarkt for a few canned items.

Germans shop frequently because they want their Brot und Brötchen to be frisch. A German Bäckerei can have up to two hundred different types of Brot!

A typical German Kühlschrank tends to be smaller than an American one, because Germans don’t want to keep food around too long: it won’t be frisch then.

In a Metzgerei oder Fleischerei, there is Rindfleisch, Schweinefleisch, und Huhn. Sometimes there’s also Ziegenfleisch, Enten, und Gänse. There are more than 1,500 different types of Wurst in Germany.

Zum Frühstück Germans often have Brot oder Brötchen with Käse, Butter, Wurst, oder Marmelade, and eine Tasse Kaffee oder eine Tasse Tee.

If you’re not at home, there are several words which describe a place to eat: Restaurant, Gaststätte, Gaststube, or Lokal. Ein Imbiss is a fast-food place. If you want to eat outdoors, look for a Gartenlokal or a Biergarten.

Ein Gasthof is a hotel, but it will usually have a restaurant in it as well.

In American restaurants, the waiter or waitress will usually set glasses of water on the table at the beginning of the meal. This is done automatically, without the customer’s request. The water is free: there is no charge for it.

In a German restaurant, water is not automatically set on the table. The customer must request it, and will pay for it. If you order Wasser, you’ll be given Mineralwasser in a bottle, not from the faucet.

German restaurants include a tip or gratuity in the bill, so there is no need to leave a significant tip for the Kellner oder Kellnerin. Most customers simply round up the total to the nearest Euro and so give a small tip.

During the meal, Germans usually hold forks in their left hands and knives in their right hands. Cloth napkins are a bit more popular in Germany than in the United States.

Outside the restaurant, near the door, a Speisekarte is usually posted, so that you can read about which types of food are offered, and how much things cost there.

In many German towns, there is a traditional restaurant located underneath the city hall, called a Ratskeller.

If you don’t want a full meal, but rather only ein Stück Kuchen und eine Tasse Kaffee, you can go to a Café or to a Konditorei.